Once you have reviewed the study guide please type below the three most important items you took away from
UNIT II STUDY GUIDE
Training-Related Theories
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
2. Describe major training-related theories.
2.1 Describe the primary tenets of a training theory.
2.2 Illustrate learning theory for a specific training situation.
2.3 Explain how a certain activity can address multiple learning styles.
Required Unit Resources
In order to access the following resources, click the links below.
Chen, J. C. (2014). Teaching nontraditional adult students: Adult learning theories in practice. Teaching in
Higher Education, 19(4), 406–418.
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=a9h&AN=94773613&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Hagen, M., & Park, S. (2016). We knew it all along! Using cognitive science to explain how andragogy works.
European Journal of Training and Development, 40(3), 171–190. https://search-proquestcom.libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/docview/2085704057?accountid=33337
ClickView Pty Limited (Producer). (2004). Accommodating different learning styles (Segment 1 of 7) [Video].
In Optimizing different learning styles. Films on Demand.
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPl
aylists.aspx?wID=273866&xtid=33591&loid=26714
The transcript for this video can be found by clicking the “Transcript” tab to the right of the video in the Films
on Demand database.
Unit Lesson
Introduction
In this unit, we will examine major training theories which explain the ways adults can acquire, retain, and
recall new information through learning. This unit will take an in-depth look at how adults learn best.
Training Theories
The manner in which adults and children learn is different. Therefore, before embarking upon the design and
development of any training/development program, it is important to consider adult learning principles and
how adults learn best.
Andragogy is the study of how adults learn (Knowles, 1980). Conversely, pedagogy is the study of how
children learn (Knowles, 1980). Andragogy rests upon six assumptions about the differences between how
adults and children learn, which are listed below.
1. Self-concept: As people mature, their self-concept moves from being dependent on others toward
being self-directed individuals.
2. Experience: As people mature, they accumulate a wealth of knowledge and experience that becomes
an increasing resource for learning.
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3. Readiness to learn: As people mature, their readiness to learn becomes
more
oriented
toward the
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developmental tasks of their social roles (e.g., spouse, employee, parent,
Titlecitizen).
4. Orientation to learning: As people mature, their perspective of time in regard to the approaches of
learning shift from postponed application of knowledge to more immediate applicability. Also, there is
a change from subject-focused learning to problem-focused learning.
5. Motivation to learn: As people mature, there is an increasing internal desire and motivation to learn.
6. Unlearn to learn: As people mature, the ways they have learned over time are often ingrained within
their learning approach. Interventions in adult learning help them accept fresh perspectives and new
ways of learning (Knowles, 1980).
Given the various assumptions of andragogy, there are several learning theories that align with these
assumptions. The theories we will explore are experiential learning, transformative learning theory, action
theory, situated learning theory, and self-directed learning theory.
Experiential Learning Theory
The experiential learning theory involves the process whereby knowledge is created through experience.
According to Cherry (n.d.), the theory was first proposed by psychologist David Kolb. Kolb (1984) believed
that the creation of knowledge is accomplished through the reflective feedback of a given experience. The
four steps that depict this model are listed below.
•
•
•
•
Concrete experience: Here, the learner is put into a situation where he or she can experience
something and receive feedback from that experience. For example, a chef gathers all of the proper
ingredients to bake lasagna. After going through the steps of putting the ingredients together, baking
the lasagna, and serving it to the guests, the guests give feedback to the chef that the lasagna is too
bland.
Reflective observation: Here, the learner reflects upon any inconsistencies between experience and
understanding. For example, the chef begins to reflect on why the guests believe the lasagna is
bland. The chef may even taste the lasagna to try and pinpoint what else is needed to bring flavor to
the bland lasagna.
Abstract conceptualization: As the learner continues to reflect upon the experience, it gives rise to a
new idea or modification to an existing concept. Essentially, the individual has learned from the
experience. Back to our example with the chef and bland lasagna, after much reflection, the chef may
realize that more salt is needed in addition to other spices and ingredients.
Active experimentation: The learner now takes what he or she learned and begins to apply it. This
can happen in the same experience or a different one. For example, the chef takes a second attempt
to bake lasagna and applies what he or she learned by adding additional salt, spices, and ingredients
to the lasagna. The process can be repeated until the desired results are achieved.
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Transformative Learning Theory
Transformative learning theory is described as the way that learning changes how an individual thinks about
the world and about himself or herself (Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy Center [TEAL], n.d.). This type
of learning requires a shift in consciousness. For example, an individual from another country comes and lives
in the United States and, after learning English and becoming confident and proficient in it, has a different
view of U.S. culture and practices. In transformative learning, individuals engage in reflective discourse that
challenges their deeply held beliefs and assumptions, which creates a shift in their frame of thinking.
Action Theory
Action learning is a reflective process whereby action is taken by a learner in a real-life learning scenario, and
the learner is asked to reflect on the action taken. This type of learning is often engaged as a team. A group
or team is formed and encouraged to meet on a regular basis to come up with solutions to problems. The
team decides on the appropriate solution together. In this scenario, learning occurs collectively as a group as
the team reflects on outcomes produced by the solution. Also, the problem-solving method is evaluated to see
whether or not it was effective.
Situated Learning Theory
The situated learning theory involves the use of materials, such as cases, to situate the learner in his or her
own operational context. In other words, learning happens in the context of a given activity or real-world
situation. For example, an individual wanting to obtain a driver’s license will first learn the information via
driving school in a classroom setting. Once the classroom information has been assimilated, the driver will
then be asked to demonstrate this knowledge by driving a vehicle in a controlled setting (e.g., parking lot or
some other open space). After skills have been mastered in the controlled setting, the student will now be
asked to drive on the road with other drivers to test his or her driving ability.
Self-Directed Learning Theory
The self-directed learning theory (SDL) is a process in which adult learners take the initiative to learn without
the help of others (TEAL, n.d.). Learners plan, execute, and evaluate their own learning experiences. SDL will
typically happen outside of a classroom setting. The characteristics of SDL include that learners make
choices about the methods, content, resources, and evaluation of the learning experience. The learners take
responsibility on their own learning by determining their needs, setting their own goals, identifying resources
on their own, implementing a plan to achieve their learning goals, and then evaluating their outcomes by
measuring how close they have achieved their goals.
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Adult Learning Styles
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From the adult learning theories discussed above comes the concept of adult learning styles. As we noted
earlier, the methods by which adults learn are different than the way children learn. This difference is not only
in cognitive processes but also in direct learning styles. Learning styles could be referred to as the way that
individuals process and take in new information (Barbe et al., 1979). According to Barbe et al. (1979), there
are three major learning styles seen in adult learners. Those learning styles are visual, audible, and
kinesthetic learning styles. We are exploring all three learning styles and discussing ways to tailor learning to
each individual style.
Visual learning: Visual learners are individuals who learn best through seeing or visualizing material. These
learners have a need to see body language and facial expressions to fully understand the content. There is
a preference to sit at the front within a classroom setting to avoid any obstruction to their visual senses. These
learners think in pictures and learn best from visual displays. In order to cater to learning styles of the visual
learner, one must take into consideration visuals to enhance the learning experience. Visual tools could
include items such as diagrams, illustrated textbooks, PowerPoint slides, computer graphics, flip charts,
or handouts.
Audible learning: Audible learners are individuals who learn best through hearing. These individuals interpret
the underlying meanings of speech through listening to speed, pitch, tone, and voice. Hence, discussions,
talking through things, lectures, reading text aloud, and listening to recordings are the preferred learning
methods of this group and the best way to cater to their learning style to enhance learning.
Kinesthetic learning: Kinesthetic learners are individuals who learn best through a hands-on approach. This
type of learning is also known as tactile learning. Kinesthetic learners prefer to be physically engaged in their
learning by actively exploring the physical world around them. They may find it difficult to sit through a lecture
for long periods at a time and may become distracted by their need for exploration and activity.
Conclusion
One thing to note when considering the learning styles above is that the entire concept of aligning training
programs with learning styles is a Western-based concept and may not transfer well to all cultures. It is
important to consult with local experts when designing training programs for a global audience. This will allow
the trainer to tailor activities to the distinct cultural needs of the local audience. Cultural competence plays a
major role in designing and implementing training programs globally. This will ensure that the training
programs are effective and will accomplish the objectives associated with the training program.
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References
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Barbe, W. B., Swassing, R. H., & Milone, M. N. (1979). Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and
practices. Zaner-Bloser.
Cherry, K. (2022, November 16). The experiental learning theory of David Kolb. Verywell Mind.
https://www.verywellmind.com/experiential-learning-2795154
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (Rev. and
updated ed.). Cambridge Adult Education.
Kolb, D. A. (1984, January). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Prentice Hall.
Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy Center. (n.d.). TEAL Center fact sheet no. 11: Adult learning theories.
Literacy Information and Communication System. https://lincs.ed.gov/state-resources/federalinitiatives/teal/guide/adultlearning
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