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The Association Between Test Anxiety and PTS in College Students
Daniel A. Clark
Texas A&M University – Central Texas
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Abstract
Very few empirical studies. To be completed at the end.
Keywords: post traumatic stress, test anxiety
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The Association Between Test Anxiety and PTS in College Students
Several different issues have been researched as issues that are encountered by college
students who have experienced trauma and Post-traumatic Stress symptoms (PTS). Among those
who have served in the military, these problems seem to be along the lines of social alienation
(Elliott et al., 2011), interpersonal relationship difficulties (Fredman et al., 2019), substance
abuse (Barry et al., 2012), and PTS (Campbell & Riggs, 2015). Many of these researchers have
studied difficulties that may be experienced in many different environments, but the academic
environment of higher education is becoming a very important one for these individuals as more
and more of them are seeking to obtain postsecondary education (Zhang, 2018). Along with this
pursuit, taking tests and the associated anxiety is a reality that many of them will face (Chapell et
al., 2005). Unfortunately, previous research has not examined the relationship between test
anxiety and PTS.
Test Anxiety and Academic Performance
When taking exams, many students experience heightened physiological arousal,
excessive worry and tension, and task irrelevant thoughts (Sarason, 1984). Although test anxiety
is not considered an official psychological disorder, it is important because it can have a negative
effect on academic performance in many different contexts (Cassady, 2004). Although the causes
of test anxiety are not exactly known, it is thought to be a combination of situational factors
(such as parent or teacher pressure) and personal factors (such as achievement goals and personal
history) that lead to the problem (Putwain et al., 2010). One fairly consistent finding has been
that female students usually have higher test anxiety than male students (Chapell et al., 2005).
Attentional control theory has suggested that test anxiety may disrupt the functions of working
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memory, leaving fewer cognitive resources for the individual to answer questions and solve
problems (Eysenck & Derakshan, 2011). Using this framework, it would not be surprising that
other psychological phenomena such as PTS could also affect cognitive functioning.
Post-Traumatic Stress and Academic Achievement
Although it is not the only concern, the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has been
found to be more common among individuals who have served in the armed forces (Schonfeld et
al., 2015). The disorder is characterized by past exposure to a traumatic event and lasting
symptoms of memory intrusions, avoidance of memory associated stimuli, cognitive and mood
alterations, and a state of hyperarousal (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Similar to test
anxiety, PTSD also affects an individual’s attentional control and memory retrieval (Bonyea et
al., 2016). However, the effect is not identical. PTS appears to affect the perception of threat
cues, leading to individuals focus on potential threats (Armstrong et al., 2013). Despite the
differences in the two constructs, similar mechanisms have been proposed that may disrupt an
individual’s ability to be successful in an academic setting. In addition, PTSD has been linked to
both generalized (Munoz et al., 2018) and social anxiety (McMillan et al., 2014). Utilizing data
from a 20-year longitudinal study of war veterans, Ginzburg et al. (2010) found that PTSD is not
only associated with anxiety disorders, but it often precedes the development of anxiety
disorders. Given the evidence of this connection, it seems likely that PTSD and test anxiety will
also be associated with one another.
The Current Study
The current study sought to discover the prevalence and connection between PTS and test
anxiety amongst a sample of nontraditional students that includes Student Veterans who have
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been Previously Deployed (SVPD) when compared to Servicemembers who had Never
Deployed (SND) and civilian college students. In addition, the current study was part of a larger
study that was designed to discover several different aspects that may affect the success and
well-being of SVPD.
Research Question 1: Are PTS symptoms related to symptoms of test anxiety?
Hypothesis 1. Based on the presented evidence, it was expected that there will be a
positive correlation between PTS symptoms and test anxiety.
Research Question 2: Are PTS and test anxiety related to academic achievement?
Hypothesis 2. It was expected that both PTS and test anxiety would have a negative
relationship with academic achievement as measured by grade point average (GPA) in college.
Research Question 3: Are the relationships between these three variables moderated by
whether the student has deployed to a combat zone?
Hypothesis 2. It was expected that the relationship between these variables may differ
dependent on whether or not the student has deployed into a combat zone as a part of military
service.
Method
Participants
This study was conducted with a sample of 281 undergraduate students at senior-level
public university near a large army base. Eight participants were eliminated from the sample for
failing to provide demographic information. The sample was mostly female (82%) with 17%
identifying as male and one percent identifying as another gender. The average age of the sample
was 31. The largest ethnicity represented was White (40%), followed by African American
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(24%), Hispanic/Latinx (18%), and Asian American (2%), and Native American (1%). The
remaining 15% of the students identified with more than one ethnicity. The majority of the
students were civilians, with 35% (n = 96) identifying as SND, while 19% (n = 51) identified
themselves as SVPD.
Design and Measures
PTS was measured using two separate instruments for different groups of participants.
The students who identified as current or past armed servicemembers were given the PTSD
Checklist – Military (PCL-M; Weathers et al., 1994), which included 17 items asking about posttraumatic symptoms related to service in the armed forces (alpha = .94). For each item, the
participants rated how much they had been affected by the described symptom on a Likert scale
from zero to five (M = 2.67, SD = 1.21), with zero signifying “not at all” and five indicating
“extremely.” For example, one item asked about “feeling upset when something reminded you
about a stressful military experience.”
Students who did not identify armed servicemembers or veterans were given the PTSD
Checklist – Civilian (PCL – C; Weathers et al., 1994). This scale asked participants to rate how
much they were affected by post-traumatic symptoms in general on an identical scale (to the
PCL-M described above) using 17 items using values from zero to five (M = 2.54, SD = 1.34;
alpha = .93).
Test anxiety was measured using the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI; Taylor & Deane,
2002). The TAI had 11 items that were answered on a Likert-type scale from zero to seven (M =
3.41, SD = 1.56). GPA was measured with a single item in which the participants were asked to
use a sliding bar to move to self-report their GPA anywhere between one and four (alpha = .87).
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Procedure
This study was administered using the Qualtrics survey platform. Before the study began,
the participants were informed and voluntarily consented to participate. The participants then
began answering questions about their academic attitudes, including the TAI and other items that
were included as part of the larger study.
After responding the items, the participants answered several demographic questions,
including questions about being an armed service member, deploying to a combat zone, and the
number of combat deployments. In the last portion of the study, the participants who indicated
that they had served in the armed forces then responded to the items of the PCL-M, while those
who had never served responded to the items of the PCL-C.
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References
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Appendix A: Tables & Figures
Figure 1.