Student groups and organizationshave been a core part of the collegiate experience since the early days ofhigher education in the United States. In the challenging academic environmentof college, students found ways to come together through dining clubs, debateclubs, literary societies and other gatherings. Fraternities were born out ofthe tradition of these student groups and to this day provide development andleadership opportunities for its members. However, hazing and other vilebehaviors adopted by fraternity men over time have overshadowed many of thepositive outcomes the organizations initially offered. The autonomous nature ofthese Greek organizations has historically led to friction between Greekmembers and college administrators. Higher education professionals still facemany challenges when working with fraternities and fatal incidents have led tostrict policy reforms. Many attempts to cooperate with fraternity organizationshave failed to result in outright bans. However, some cases suggest that whenproperly supported and regulated, Greek organizations could bring positiveimpacts to campus just like any other student group.The History of Fraternity Organizations in American Higher EducationInDecember 1776 at the College of William and Mary, Phi Beta Kappa was foundedand became the first fraternal organization in the United States. Theorganization set precedent for secret collegiate societies named after theGreek-letter initials of a secret motto. The founders of this secret societydeclared that it was formed with “friendship as its basis and benevolence andliterature as its pillars.” Phi Beta Kappa soonexpanded to Yale and Harvard and eventually became an influential associationof elite upperclassmen with active faculty involvement across several colleges (Flanagan,2014; Hastings, 1965). As the chapters becamelarger, the brotherhood and congeniality that had defined the original chapterwas eventually replaced with an increased focused on oratory and academicpursuits. This, however, is not indicative of the modern-day fraternity as thesystem under which Phi Beta Kappa functioned has significantly shifted(Hastings, 1965). The first general Greek letter fraternity is considered to be the Kappa Alpha Society, established in 1825 at Union College. The dissolution of the College’s military company prompted founder John Hart Hunter and four other members to form a secret literary and social society to fill the “aching void” left by its absence. The organization was formed around fellowship, making the development of friendship and brotherhood their primary purpose (Syrett, 2009). Despite small membership size and fierce faculty and administrative opposition, the Society was secretly popular among students, inspiring the foundation of both Sigma Phi and Delta Phi in the spring and fall of 1827, respectively. Often referred to as “The Union Triad,” these three fraternities became the founders of the modern American fraternity system, and according to Baird (1920), “imitation of them or opposition to them will account for the establishment of nearly all of the general fraternities” (p.6). By the 1850s these secret societies had become an integral aspect of collegiate life, predominantly on New England and mid-Atlantic campuses. In the Midwest and the South, fraternities existed at institutions almost exclusively attended by the wealthy. This meant the majority of fraternity men were seeking future success through academia and professional careers rather than the ministry (Syrett, 2009). Not long afterward,collegiate activity across American campuses weakened during the Civil War.Fraternities at many colleges and universities were temporarily closed, and inthe South, many were suspended altogether. However, the passage of the MorrillAct in 1862 during the War led to the birth of new higher educationinstitutions and increased student enrollment. Post-War, new fraternities wereestablished, most notably at Southern institutions with a prominent military,unsurprising after the culmination of a war (Baird, 1920). The overall growthin the fraternity system is responsible for the characterization of this periodas “The Golden Age of Fraternities” (Sanua, 2003). The “Golden Age”was undoubtedly a time of significant growth for the fraternity system.However, this period is also characterized by incredible discrimination againstminority populations, whose enrollment had been steadily increasing since thepassage of the Morrill Act. Since its inception, the fraternity system has beenunofficially defined by the inclusion of wealthy White Christian students andthe exclusion of everyone else. The societies’ secrecy and exclusivity wereessential to their prestige and appeal. This prompted the establishment of PhiKappa Sigma by Catholic students at Brown in 1889 as well as the non-sectarianPi Lambda Phi and exclusively Jewish Z.B.T. (later Zeta Beta Tau), both byJewish students at Yale in 1895 and 1898, respectively (Sanua, 2003). The 1960s brought upon a period of studentunrest, prompting dramatic changes in American higher education. Activism,sexual liberation, and drug-use characterized this era and students made everyeffort to relinquish themselves from the patriarchal control of their collegeand university administrators. Despite their reputation as elite leaders whofrequently ignored authority, fraternity members had become the opposite as“representatives of the very status quo the new activists sought to overthrow”(Flanagan, 2024). With increasing unrest, administrators had effectively lostthe ability to control their students. In loco parentis became athing of the past and campus life was transformed. For the first time in history,fraternities had lost their appeal. The hierarchical social division andexclusiveness characteristic of the system was no longer of interest andmembership declined rapidly, with hundreds of chapters closing across thecountry (Flanagan, 2014; Horowitz, 1986). Despite the period of liberation that threatened the fraternity system, the release of the movie Animal House in 1978 paved the way for the return of fraternity reign and modern-day Greek life. Prior to this, fraternities had been predominantly focused on social engagements and the prestige of brotherhood. The materialism that characterized the 1980s, however, formed a new culture of excessive partying, drinking, and general debauchery within the chapters’ private houses. Coupled with a lack of supervision, this fostered an environment of violent hazing, fraternity rivals, and dangerous behaviors (Flanagan, 2014; Horowitz, 1986). Since then, fraternity membership has continued to grow and alumni membership has grown even more. From the very beginning of the emergence of the modern-day fraternity, these organizations were met with faculty and administrative opposition (Flanagan, 2014). Some colleges and universities have since banned Greek organizations altogether while others believe in their merit. Opponents of the fraternity system have continued to argue that membership is detrimental to intellectual development and fosters inappropriate behavior. The validity of these claims varies across campuses and remains at the forefront of Greek-life discussions today (Turk, 2004). The History of Hazing in White FraternitiesIn 1906, the New York Timespublished a poem written by humorist John Kendrick Bangs entitled,“Hazing—The National Game.” The poem describes, in joyous detail, the variousphysical tortures pledges endured to prove their worthiness of becoming afraternity brother. Hazing, hazing, hazing till they’re hoarse-See the gallant soldier-boy drink tabasco sauce!See him take the water cure till he’s fit to bust!Run his nose into the mud, fill his eyes with dust;Run and heat the iron hot, brand him good and well–That’s the way to treat a future Major Generell. Although Bangs was a satirist, this piece illustrates quitewell how fraternity brothers demonstrated and enacted the rules of violentmasculinity among themselves and on others. As Nicholas Syrett suggests in hisbook, “The Company He Keeps: A History of White College Fraternities,” hazinghas always been a part of white male college life. Even before the founding ofthe first fraternity in 1776, upperclassmen hazed underclassmen in an attemptto make “men” from the “boys” living without their families for the first time(Syrett, 2009). As young men left home for college, they searched for acommunity that would support them in their new environments. For many, thissupport system came packaged up neatly in the form of a fraternity, and,further afield than many students had ever traveled from home, this ready-madefamily was a treasure they would do anything to keep (Syrett, 2009).As mentioned, hazing between classes(primarily sophomores and freshman) was common even in the early days ofAmerican higher education, but the focus of the harassment shifted from classyear to fraternal affiliation by the early 1900s (Syrett, 2009). Post-Civil Warfraternity members drew from their ties to the armed forces and militaryacademies to come up with hazing rituals that would prove a pledge’s manlinessto his new family. As illustrated in Bangs’ poem, hazing at the turn of thecentury often took the form of beatings and humiliation. Taking this abuse“like a man” would prove to the brothers that a pledge was no longer a boy, buta fraternity man, ready to perform and defend the aggressive and strict rulesof masculinity around campus and beyond. Fraternal hazing first became a national topic of conversation in 1873, when a Kappa Alpha pledge at Cornell named Mortimer Leggett fell to his death while wearing a blindfold in preparation for a hazing ritual. In a statement to the Washington Star, which was then published in the New York Times, Leggett’s father relayed that his son had, “alluded to the entire absence of ‘hazing’ among the students” (The Death of Mortimer Leggett, 1873). Leggett’s father then continued to praise the upstanding gentlemen who comprised the fraternity: “I am satisfied those friends were young men of exceptionally good character… Such mummeries are foolish and heathenish, and belong to a darker age, but they are common in nearly all the colleges of the world, and are part, probably, of every secret society.” Although Mortimer had informed his father that Cornell did not tolerate hazing, it was clearly common enough on campuses and in “secret societies” such as fraternities that his father was well aware of what pledges endured before they officially joined a fraternity. This document also shows that, despite the danger and brutality of some of these practices, fraternities were still seen around the country as the pinnacle of upstanding manliness. Fraternity brothers were nothing more than men with good characters, upholding traditional white Protestant, heterosexual values of masculinity. Although Leggett’s death was an accident, hazing rituals, especially during the initiation process, became more purposefully dangerous after WWII. More rituals depended on heavy consumption of alcohol, and this trend towards increased substance abuse has continued today (Syrett, 2009). Current Issues & Policy ReformSince the mid-1980s fraternitieshave advertised their organizations as fast tracks towards academic excellenceand future professional connections (Horowitz, 1986). Their public rhetoric isrequired to recruit students whose focus is to achieve good grades and careers.Within the organizations, fraternities continue to support communal cheating,violence, and rape (Horowitz, 1986). Decades after Horowitz’s conclusions,these internal practices are becoming increasingly public knowledge and in somecases, outshining any positive reputations. Despite the increase of devastating discoveries, college men are stillcommitting themselves to these types of organizations across the country. Journalist John Hechinger reportsone in six males attending a four-year university are fraternity members andover 380,000 males are involved in Greek Life today, a 50 percent increase overthe past decade (Hechinger, 2017). Dangerous recruitment practices for newfraternity members are becoming progressively deadly. With at least one hazingdeath on a North American college campus every year since 1959, reform orpolicy changes seems like a feeble attempt to resolve the issue (Nuwer, 2017).As of December 2017, four hazing-related deaths have been recorded at separateuniversities; all four campuses suspended Greek Life following the incidents.Death is not the only threat to young men pledging their allegiance to theseorganizations. Four additional universities also suspended Greek Life followingreports of hazing violations.University administrators attempt toget ahead of the issues by suspending or banning violating organizations fromcampus. Studies show those who are hazed experience physical, emotional and/ormental instability, sleep deprivation, loss of sense of control andempowerment, decline in grades and coursework, post-traumatic stress syndrome,loss of respect for and interest in being part of the organization, andsuffered relationships with friends, family and significant others (Downes,2017). Though campuses nationwide prohibit hazing, 55 percent of collegestudents involved in campus organizations have experienced hazing. Only fivepercent, however, have reported events to campus officials (Benton, 2017).There are many incidents that remain unknown to anyone outside of thefraternity community. Though one death should be enough for a national change,there are significant factors, specifically powerful individuals, thatcontribute to the decisions of university administrators.Roughly seventy fraternityorganizations have four million living alumni and represent the most respectedand dominant force in the movement (Hechinger, 2017). Alumni have always beenkey stakeholders in policy and direction of their alma maters. Theseindividuals remember their times at the university fondly and wish to seecampus culture unchanged. Those in defense of fraternities often argue thatmost chapters foster brotherhood, build leadership skills and promotephilanthropy.Pennsylvania State University is oneuniversity to have a hazing death on their campus in 2017. Tim Piazza, an18-year-old pledge, passed away after being forced to consume deadly amounts ofalcohol and falling down a flight of stairs. Following the incident, theuniversity temporarily suspended all Greek Life, permanently banned thefraternity from campus, and the Penn State Board of Trustees began work onpolicy change and reform. The Penn State Board of Trustees includes at least 14alumni who were members of university Greek Life organizations (Reilly, 2017).Reforms eliminated the self-governing policies of Greek Life and haveimplemented a zero-tolerance hazing policy. The announcements by the board lackthe immediacy and strength required to create swift and over-arching change.Those in opposition to the decision say Penn State is seeking to defuse thesituation without alienating influential and wealthy fraternity alumni (Reilly,2017).Universities reacting to hazing incidents often announce similar policy changes and but with little long-term success. This failure is often attributed to the lack of alumni infrastructure to carry and sustain a message for longer than a few weeks or months (Altwies, 2017). Advocates call for more university official involvement with Greek Life and creating mentor and advising positions to assist in the safe development of all participants. Transparency of organizational practices and behavior is also encouraged to help educate potential pledges to make informed decisions. After the 2014 death of fraternity pledge at Clemson University, the state of South Carolina passed the Tucker Hipps Transparency Act (Altwies, 2017). The law requires public institutions of higher learning, excluding technical schools, to report all conduct violations concerning alcohol, drugs, sexual assaults, and hazing. The U.S. House of Representatives, amending the Higher Education Act of 1965, will review a bill reflective of the Tucker Hipps Transparency Act, requiring all incidents of hazing be included on campus crime reports (Altwies, 2017).Legal Cases and ResultsCarson Starkey pledged into theSigma Alpha Epsilon chapter when he was a freshman at California PolytechnicState University. According to the police report, pledges were given largeamounts of liquor, including rum, beer, and Everclear and were told to drinkquickly as the fraternity brothers chanted “puke and rally” (Winerip, 2012).Carson Starkey passed out due to the alcohol consumption. Fraternity members attemptedto drive him to the hospital, but then stopped and turned around as they wereafraid of being arrested. Instead, the fraternity brothers returned to thehouse and put Starkey on a mattress where he later died. Carson’s blood alcohollevel was .40 (Winerip, 2012). Carson’s parents, Scott and Julia Starkey, fileda lawsuit against the fraternity’s national headquarters looking “to hold themaccountable” and “to make changes in the fraternity system, university and lawthat would protect other students and families” (Strickland, 2011). Thefraternity’s national headquarters decided to end the chapter after its owninvestigation into Starkey’s death. The settlement also now requires “that thefraternity give parents and students more information about potential problemsand dangers in the fraternity before they decide to join,” and the fraternityis required to “make fundamental changes in the way it and its chapters operateparticularly concerning hazing and the availability and misuse of alcohol” (Winerip,2012). The lawsuit which was filed in 2009 named the fraternity, the Cal Polychapter, and 8 members of the fraternity, alleging four counts of negligence aswell as a violation of Matt’s Law which is a California law that allows forlawsuits when injuries or deaths result from hazing (Strickland, 2011). In thesummer of 2010 four of the men named in the lawsuit were convicted of criminalmisdemeanors and sentenced to jail terms ranging from 30 days to six months(Strickland, 2011). Sentences also included community service and probation.California Polytechnic State University also modified their fraternity andsorority rules which now “blocks freshman and transfers from pledging to afraternity or sorority until at least their second quarter” (Strickland, 2011).Scott and Julia Starkey also filed a lawsuit against Haithem Ibrahim who was their son’s designated big brother in the fraternity. Ibrahim was responsible for choosing the alcohol that Starkey would drink in part of a fraternity drinking event. Ibrahim originally entered a no-contest plea to misdemeanor hazing which caused the death of Carson Starkey in 2008. In 2010 Haithem Ibrahim settled with Scott and Julia Starkey for $500,000 (Wilson, 2010).In a separate incident during initiation, Phi Kappa Tau held a “Big Little Night” where Rider University Freshman Gary DeVercelly Jr. participated in a race to see who could finish a bottle of alcohol first. When DeVercelly Jr. got sick he was taken upstairs by two fraternity brothers and left to sleep it off. Two days later DeVercelly Jr. died of alcohol poisoning. Gary’s parents filed a lawsuit on his behalf against Rider University and Phi Kappa Tau alleging negligence, misconduct, and wrongful death and asked the court to award them 75 million dollars (Hagen, 2009).After Gary DeVercelly Jr’s death in 2007, Rider University removed their charter. Gary’s family received a “substantial amount of money that remains confidential” (Hagen, 2009). The 22-year-old fraternity president settled with Gary’s family for $150,000, and another fraternity brother, Vincent Cagulero, who was Gary’s big brother in the fraternity settled the case for $375,000 (Hagen, 2009). In addition, Rider agreed to the following terms (Hagen, 2009):RenderGreek organizations dry by banning the use of alcohol at all Greek socialevents in residence halls and Greek houses on campusesStrengthensanctions and require parental notification for all alcohol policy violations”Strengthensanctions for hazing violationsEstablishlive-in directors to oversee code of conduct enforcement in all Greek houses”Establisha Good Samaritan policy that encourages students to seek help first formedically compromised students without fear of campus repercussionsRequirepublication of fraternity misconduct on the Greek Affairs portion of Rider’swebsite so that students, parents, and the general public are advised aboutthese incidents and potential risksBlake Novacek, a student from theUniversity of Oklahoma filed a lawsuit against the Gamma Phi chapter of BetaTheta Pi after he says he was brutally hazed because of a football game whentheir school lost to the University of Texas. Novacek’s lawsuit states thatBeta Theta Pi members called its pledges to the fraternity house, forced thepledges to watch videos of hogs being slaughtered, and then asked them torecite facts about the fraternity. When he was not able to, he was hit in thestomach with a baseball bat, which caused him to fall, hit his head and loseconsciousness (Andrews, 2017). The lawsuit says that members of Beta Theta Pi“carted Novacek down to the basement and put him on a couch where he satunconscious for 10 hours with no medical help” (Andrews, 2017). When Novacekregained consciousness another member of the fraternity threatened Novacek,“claiming the fraternity would ruin his reputation, damage his things and gethim kicked out of school, if he told anyone about the hazing incident”(Andrews, 2017). The next day Blake’s car was vandalized. Blake Novacek wasleft with traumatic brain injury from the hazing incident. Litigation ispending on this case, and the University has not said much in regards to it. Aspokesman for the University of Oklahoma made only one statement saying “Theuniversity investigates every report of a violation of the Student Rights andResponsibilities Code” (Andrews, 2017). Beta Theta Pi fraternity denies allallegations.Student Affairs, Leadership Development and Changing Fraternity LifeThe department of student affairs isyounger than the fraternity system and many fraternities are used to operatingwithout the involvement or oversight of universities. Hazing and otherdangerous behaviors have developed due to the autonomous nature of thefraternities. However, it cannot be ignored that the members of theseorganizations experience valuable leadership development opportunities(Kimbrough, 1995). A study by Erwin and Marcus-Mendoza found that students whoare more involved on campus set higher goals for themselves, commit to decision-making,and are more confident in their leadership (1988). This suggests that thesestudents are reaching higher levels of cognitive and leadership developmentthan their uninvolved peers. Fraternities are one that students can access thisdevelopment, but they must receive the same level of education and regulationas every other student group. Additionally, forming close bonds within afraternity can improve motivation, performance and a student’s perception oftheir university (Erwin & Marcus-Mendoza, 1988).These organizations can beparticularly important for students of color who may not encounter similaropportunities for student development and leadership in other settings. InBlack fraternities, Black men have multiple options for leadership and may beable to experience leadership development much earlier in their collegiatecareer than in predominantly White student groups (Kimbrough 1988). Campusinvolvement and leadership opportunities have been shown to improve performanceand increase retention. Of all demographics, Black males drop out of college atalarmingly high rates and are reporting feelings of isolation and pressure to“conform to the White ideal” (McClure, 2006). In contrast, Black fraternitiesoffer spaces for Black men to not only develop their leadership, but also theirracial identity. For these reasons Black fraternities also impact retentionsince they provide support for Black students and opportunities for socializingand development that they cannot access in predominantly White spaces andgroups (Credle & Dean, 1991).Regardless of their failures ormerits fraternities are not likely to disappear from campus life anytime soon.In order to highlight their advantages and mitigate their challengesuniversities must be willing to provide adequate support and education forfraternity members and fraternities must be willing to cooperate. Liz Jordan,the Assistant Director of Fraternities, Sororities, and Independent LivingGroups (FSILGs) at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), believes thatstrong cooperation between her office and fraternities has yielded positiveresults. Because of her good relationships with the organizations, students aremore likely to come forward and own their mistakes when incidents occur. Allfraternity executive board member participate in leadership training, whichprovides them with skills to manage crisis and educate their chapter aboutsafety and school policy. Although MIT has not been free of hazing incidentssince the creation of the FSILGs Administrative office, Liz finds conversationsaround conduct are richer and she is able to focus on educating students inrisk management (L. Jordan, personal communication, November 27, 2017). Whilemany more changes are still needed both at MIT and across the country,universities may want to consider providing fraternities with more support andoversight rather than continuing to enforce ineffective bans.ConclusionHazing has been a major problem in white college fraternities for as long as they have existed in the United States. Fraternities were found to foster community but quickly became spaces that enforce dangerous gendered stereotypes of masculinity, resulting in thousands of injuries, legal cases, instances of property damages, and deaths across the country. The steps universities have taken to combat this violence has been almost entirely ineffective on a grand scale, in large part thanks to the collective wealth and strength of fraternity alumni and their influence on college life far past their time on campus. In order to curb the violence in these organizations and prevent from further damage, drastic, large-scale action is required and will likely take years to effectively develop.ReferencesAltwies, N. (2017, November 14).Halting the Tragedies of Fraternity Hazing. InsideHigher Ed. Retrieved fromhttps://ww.insidehighered.com/views/2017/11/14/what-colleges-should-do-stop-tragedies-result-fraternity-hazing-essayAndrews, T. M. (2017, October 06).Oklahoma University fraternity sued over alleged hazing incident. The Washington Post. Retrieved fromhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/10/06/oklahoma-university-fraternity-sued-over-alleged-hazing-incident/?utm_term=.2f4d56fa180bBaird,W.M.R. (1920). Baird’s Manual of AmericanCollege Fraternities: A Descriptive Analysis of theFraternity System in the Colleges of the United States. (9th ed.). New York, NY: James T.Brown Publisher. Benton, K. (2017, November 17).Hazing an ongoing concern to U.S. universities. Cabrini University Student Media. Retrieved from http://www.theloquitur.com/hazing-an-ongoing-concern-to-u-s-universities/Credle, J. O., & Dean, G. J. (1991). A comprehensivemodel for enhancing black student retention in higher education. Journal of Multicultural Counseling andDevelopment, 19(4), 158-165.Downes, M. (2017, October 23).University scandal, reputation and governance. International Journal for Educational Integrity. Retrieved from https://edintegrity.springeropen.com/articles/10.1007/s40979-017-0019-0Erwin, T. D., & Marcus-Mendoza, S. T. (1988).Motivation and students’ participation in leadership and group activities. Journal of College Student Development, 29(4),356-361.Hechinger, J. (2017). True Gentlemen: The Broken Pledge ofAmerica’s Fraternities. New York, NY: PublicAffairs.Horowitz, H. (1986). The 1960s andthe Transformation of Campus Cultures. Historyof Education Quarterly, 26(1), 1-38. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/368875?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contentsJohn,K. B. (1906, Feb 25). HAZING—THE NATIONAL GAME. New York Times (1857-1922). Retrieved fromhttps://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.bu.edu/docview/96594724?accountid=9676.Kimbrough, W. (1995). Self-Assessment, Participation, andValue of Leadership Skills, Activities, and Experiences for Black StudentsRelative to Their Membership in Historically Black Fraternities and Sororities.The Journal of Negro Education, 64(1), 63-74. doi:10.2307/2967285 Martin,I.S. (1919). The Sorority Handbook (6thed.). Menasha, WI: George Banta Publishing. Retrieved from https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=loc.ark:/13960/t4nk48r3s;view=1up;seq=9McClure, S. M. (2006). Voluntary association membership:Black Greek men on a predominantly White campus. The Journal of Higher Education, 77(6), 1036-1057.Nuwer, H. (2017, October). Hazing Deaths. Retrieved fromhttp://www.hanknuwer.com/hazing-deaths/Reilly, K. (2017, October 11).College Students Keep Dying Because of Fraternity Hazing. Why Is It So Hard toStop?. TIME Magazine. Retrieved fromhttp://time.com/4976836/fraternity-hazing-deaths-reform-tim-piazzaSanua,M. R. (1994). “Going greek”: A socialhistory of jewish college fraternities in the united states, 1895-1945 (OrderNo. 9516173). Retrieved fromhttps://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.bu.edu/docview/304123276?accountid=9676Syrett, N. L. (2009, January 1). The Company He Keeps: A History of WhiteCollege Fraternities. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North CarolinaPress.Times, T. J. (2009, September 24).Settlement announced in Rider hazing death. TheTimes. Retrieved from http://www.nj.com/mercer/index.ssf/2009/09/settlement_announced_in_rider.htmlTheDeath of Mortimer Leggett. (1873, Oct 21). NewYork Times (1857-1922). Retrieved fromhttps://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.bu.edu/docview/93273381?accountid=9676Winerip, M. (2012, April 12). When aHazing Goes Very Wrong. The New YorkTimes. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/15/education/edlife/a-hazing-at-cornell.htmlWisniewski, M. (2014, March 07).U.S. fraternity ends pledging for new members after hazing deaths. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved fromhttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2014-03-07/news/sns-rt-usa-fraternity-hazing-20140307_1_fraternity-leaders-carson-starkey-sigma-alpha-epsilonGet Help With Your EssayIf you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help!Find out more